After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the ideological division between liberalism (West) and communism (East) during the Cold War came to an end. Later that year, the short article titled “End of History” written by political scholar Francis Fukuyama sparked controversy and debate on the conclusion of the Cold War. In 1992, Fukuyama published his book “The End of History and the Last Man,” in which he analyzes ideological evolution from fascism to liberal democracy and concludes that mankind has finally accepted liberal democracy as the best form of government.
In this book, “End of History” does not mean the end of events but the end of ideological competition between humans. Fukuyama argues that mankind has reached a point where it is satisfied with liberal democracy compared to political systems like monarchy, fascism, and communism. He believes that Western liberal democracy may be the final stage of mankind’s ideological evolution.
In the first part of the book, Fukuyama explains historical evolution through the ideas of German philosophers Georg W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx. Both argued that human societies evolve until they reach a stage where fundamental desires are fulfilled. Hegel emphasized man’s desire for recognition and dignity — once fulfilled, ideological development ends. Marx agreed but viewed history as a class struggle that ends when class desires are satisfied. Fukuyama argues that history is guided by human desires and freedoms, and liberal democracy is the ideology that finally fulfills them, ending ideological evolution.
In the second part, Fukuyama explains why fascism, authoritarianism, and communism failed in the 20th century, while liberal democracy became dominant. Fascism prioritized the state and military over individuals, ignoring universal human desires for rights. Communism focused on class equality but failed to provide individual freedoms and economic aspirations, leading to the collapse of the Soviet model. Authoritarian regimes lacked legitimacy and failed to meet societal demands. Liberal democracies, with their free-market mechanisms and adaptability, fulfilled economic and political desires better than any other model.
In the third part, Fukuyama discusses the human struggle for recognition using Plato’s concept of Thymos — the desire for dignity and acknowledgement. Megalothymia refers to the desire to be superior, while Isothymia refers to the desire for equality. Liberal democracy satisfies Isothymia by giving equal political rights and ending the master–slave dynamic of older systems.
In the fourth part, Fukuyama criticizes all ideological systems other than liberal democracy because they fail to provide universal rights. However, he acknowledges that liberal democracy faces challenges from religion and nationalism. He ends with Nietzsche’s idea of the “last man,” a stage where mankind becomes complacent, satisfied, and stops striving — a condition that may threaten further growth.
Fukuyama argues that mankind has accepted the principles of liberal democracy, and individual freedom, rights, and economic independence fulfill human desires. But critics point out that after the Cold War, attacks such as 9/11, the Iraq invasion, ISIS, and ideological conflicts show that history has not ended. Populism threatens liberal democracies, as seen in Brexit. Identity-based struggles — like the Israel–Palestine conflict — show that ideological evolution continues. China’s economic model also challenges the idea of liberal democracy as the final system.
I agree with Fukuyama that liberal democracy is more adaptable and offers equality and freedom better than other systems. But I do not fully agree with the “last man” idea because mankind is still not fully satisfied with liberal democracy. Many developing nations struggle due to Western dominance, and the best political model is still debated. Populism, religion, and global political